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␈↓␈↓↓␈↓α␈↓β␈↓∧␈↓∧Artificial Intelligence Laboratory␈↓ ¬yJanuary 1975␈↓ ∧}␈↓ 	∀John McCarthy, Director␈↓ ↓H
Stanford University␈↓ 	_Les Earnest, Assoc. Dir.␈↓ ↓H
Stanford, California 94305␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ β⊗␈↓αARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE STANFORD A.I. LAB.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H␈↓↓This␈α∀is␈α∀a␈α∀general␈α∀article␈α∀for␈α∀answering␈α∪inquiries␈α∪about␈α∪artificial␈α∪intelligence␈α∪and␈α∪the␈α∪Stanford␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HArtificial␈α
Intelligence␈α
Laboratory.␈α
We␈α
hope␈α
it␈α
answers␈α
your␈α
questions.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_␈↓↓Artificial␈α∀intelligence␈↓␈α∀is␈α∀the␈α∀name␈α∀given␈α∀to␈α∀the␈α∀study␈α∀of␈α∀intellectual␈α∪processes␈α∪and␈α∪how␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputers␈αcan␈αbe␈αmade␈αto␈αcarry␈αthem␈αout.␈αMost␈αworkers␈αin␈αthe␈αfield␈αbelieve␈αthat␈αit␈αwill␈αbe␈αpossible␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hto␈αprogram␈αcomputers␈α
to␈α
carry␈α
out␈α
any␈α
intellectual␈α
process␈α
now␈α
done␈α
by␈α
humans.␈α
However,␈α
almost␈α
all␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hagree␈α
that␈α
we␈α
are␈α
not␈α
very␈α
close␈α
to␈α
this␈αgoal␈αand␈αthat␈αsome␈αfundamental␈αdiscoveries␈αmust␈αbe␈αmade␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfirst.␈α⊂Therefore,␈α⊂work␈α⊂in␈α⊂AI␈α⊂includes␈α∂trying␈α∂to␈α∂analyze␈α∂intelligent␈α∂behavior␈α∂into␈α∂more␈α∂basic␈α∂data␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hstructures␈α∩and␈α∩processes,␈α∩experiments␈α∩to␈α⊃determine␈α⊃if␈α⊃processes␈α⊃proposed␈α⊃to␈α⊃solve␈α⊃some␈α⊃class␈α⊃of␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hproblems␈α
really␈α
work,␈α
and␈α
attempts␈α
to␈α
apply␈α
what␈α
we␈α
have␈α
found␈α
so␈α
far␈α
to␈α
practical␈α
problems.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α
idea␈α
of␈α
intelligent␈α
machines␈α
is␈α
very␈α
old␈αin␈αfiction,␈αbut␈αpresent␈αwork␈αdates␈αfrom␈αthe␈αtime␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hstored␈α∞program␈α∞electronic␈α∞computers␈α∞became␈α∞available␈α∞starting␈α∞in␈α∞1949.␈α
Any␈α
behavior␈α
that␈α
can␈α
be␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcarried␈αout␈αby␈αany␈αmechanical␈αdevice␈αcan␈αbe␈αdone␈αby␈αa␈αcomputer,␈αand␈αgetting␈αa␈αparticular␈αbehavior␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓His␈α∪just␈α∪a␈α∪matter␈α∪of␈α∪writing␈α∪a␈α∪program␈α∪unless␈α∩the␈α∩behavior␈α∩requires␈α∩special␈α∩input␈α∩and␈α∩output␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hequipment.␈α∞It␈α∞is␈α∞perhaps␈α∞reasonable␈α∞to␈α
date␈α
AI␈α
from␈α
A.M.␈α
Turing's␈α
1950␈α
paper␈α
[1].␈α
Newell,␈α
Shaw␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hand␈αSimon␈αstarted␈αtheir␈αgroup␈αin␈α1954␈αand␈αthe␈αM.I.T.␈αArtificial␈αIntelligence␈αLaboratory␈αwas␈αstarted␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hby␈α
McCarthy␈α
and␈α
Minsky␈α
in␈α
1958.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ¬␈␈↓αBoard Games␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Early␈αwork␈αin␈αAI␈αincluded␈αprograms␈αto␈αplay␈αgames␈αlike␈αchess␈αand␈αcheckers␈αand␈αkalah␈αand␈αgo.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HThe␈αsuccess␈αof␈αthese␈αprograms␈αwas␈αrelated␈αto␈αthe␈αextent␈αthat␈αhuman␈αplay␈αof␈αthese␈αgames␈αmakes␈αuse␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α∪mechanisms␈α∪we␈α∩didn't␈α∩understand␈α∩well␈α∩enough␈α∩to␈α∩program.␈α∩If␈α∩the␈α∩game␈α∩requires␈α∩only␈α∩well␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hunderstood␈αmechanisms,␈αcomputers␈αplay␈αbetter␈αthan␈αhumans.␈αKalah␈αis␈αsuch␈αa␈αgame.␈αThe␈αbest␈αrating␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hobtained␈α∞in␈α∞tournament␈α∞play␈α∞by␈α∞a␈α∞chess␈α∞program␈α∞so␈α∞far␈α∞is␈α∞around␈α
1700␈α
which␈α
is␈α
a␈α
good␈α
amateur␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hlevel.␈α
The␈α
chess␈α
programmers␈α
hope␈α
to␈α
do␈α
better.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ¬[␈↓αFormal Reasoning␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Another␈α∩early␈α⊃problem␈α⊃domain␈α⊃was␈α⊃theorem␈α⊃proving␈α⊃in␈α⊃logic.␈α⊃This␈α⊃is␈α⊃important␈α⊃for␈α⊃two␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hreasons.␈αFirst,␈αit␈αprovides␈αanother␈αarea␈αin␈αwhich␈α
our␈α
accomplishments␈α
in␈α
artificial␈α
intelligence␈α
can␈α
be␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcompared␈α↔with␈α↔human␈α↔intelligence.␈α↔Again␈α↔the␈α↔results␈α⊗obtained␈α⊗depend␈α⊗on␈α⊗what␈α⊗intellectual␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmechanisms␈αthe␈αtheorem␈αproving␈αrequires,␈αbut␈αin␈αgeneral␈αthe␈αresults␈αhave␈αnot␈αbeen␈αas␈αgood␈αas␈αwith␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hgame␈α∞playing.␈α∞This␈α∞is␈α∞partly␈α∞because␈α∞the␈α∞mathematical␈α
logical␈α
systems␈α
available␈α
were␈α
designed␈α
for␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hproving␈α
metatheorems␈α
about␈α
rather␈α
than␈α
for␈α
proving␈α
theorems␈α
in.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈αsecond␈αreason␈αwhy␈αtheorem␈αproving␈αis␈αimportant␈αis␈αthat␈αlogical␈αlanguages␈αcan␈αbe␈αused␈αto␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hexpress␈α
what␈α
we␈αwish␈αto␈αtell␈αthe␈αcomputer␈αabout␈αthe␈αworld,␈αand␈αwe␈αcan␈αtry␈αto␈αmake␈αit␈αreason␈αfrom␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthis␈αwhat␈αit␈αshould␈αdo␈αto␈αsolve␈αthe␈αproblems␈αwe␈αgive␈αit.␈αIt␈αturns␈αout␈αto␈αbe␈αquite␈αdifficult␈αto␈αexpress␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhat␈α
humans␈α
know␈α
about␈αthe␈αworld␈αin␈αthe␈αpresent␈αlogical␈αlanguages␈αor␈αin␈αany␈αother␈αway.␈αSome␈αof␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhat␈αwe␈αknow␈αis␈αreadily␈αexpressed␈αin␈αnatural␈αlanguage,␈αbut␈αmuch␈αbasic␈αinformation␈αabout␈αcausality␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hand␈α
what␈α
may␈αhappen␈αwhen␈αan␈αaction␈αis␈αtaken␈αis␈αnot␈αever␈αexplicitly␈αstated␈αin␈αhuman␈αspeech.␈αThis␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hgives␈α
rise␈α
to␈α
the␈α
representation␈α
problem␈α
of␈α
determining␈α
what␈α
is␈α
known␈α
in␈α
general␈α
about␈αthe␈αworld␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hand␈α
how␈α
to␈α
express␈αit␈αin␈αa␈αform␈αthat␈αcan␈αbe␈αused␈αby␈αthe␈αcomputer␈αto␈αsolve␈αproblems.␈αAt␈αthis␈αtime,␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α
representation␈α
problem␈α
seems␈α
to␈α
be␈α
the␈α
key␈α
problem␈α
in␈α
artificial␈α
intelligence.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ εβ␈↓αPublications␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α
results␈α
of␈α
current␈α
research␈α
in␈α
artificial␈α
intelligence␈α
is␈α
published␈α
in␈α
the␈α
journal␈α
␈↓↓Artificial␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HIntelligence␈↓,␈α
and␈α
in␈α
more␈α
general␈αcomputer␈αscience␈αpublications␈αsuch␈αas␈αthose␈αof␈αthe␈αACM␈αand␈αthe␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HBritish␈α⊂Computer␈α⊂Society.␈α∂The␈α∂ACM␈α∂has␈α∂a␈α∂special␈α∂interest␈α∂group␈α∂on␈α∂artificial␈α∂intelligence␈α∂called␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HSIGART␈α∪which␈α∪publishes␈α∩a␈α∩bulletin.␈α∩Every␈α∩two␈α∩years␈α∩there␈α∩is␈α∩an␈α∩international␈α∩conference␈α∩on␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hartificial␈αintelligence␈αwhich␈αpublishes␈αa␈α
proceedings.␈α
The␈α
third␈α
and␈α
most␈α
recent␈α
was␈α
held␈α
at␈α
Stanford␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hin␈α
the␈α
summer␈α
of␈α
1973␈α
and␈α
the␈α
proceedings␈α
are␈α
available␈α
[2].␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Some␈αcurrent␈αbooks␈αand␈αpapers␈αare␈αlisted␈αat␈αthe␈αend␈αof␈αthis␈αwriteup␈α[3,␈α4,␈α5,␈α6].␈αThe␈αStanford␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HArtificial␈αIntelligence␈αLaboratory␈αhas␈α
a␈α
series␈α
of␈α
research␈α
reports␈α
(A.I.␈α
Memos)␈α
which␈α
are␈α
included␈α
in␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α∩reports␈α∩put␈α∩out␈α∩by␈α∩the␈α∩Computer␈α∩Science␈α∩Department.␈α∩One␈α∩can␈α∩get␈α∩on␈α∩the␈α∩list␈α∩to␈α⊃receive␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hannouncements␈αof␈αreports␈αby␈αwriting␈αto␈α[7].␈αA␈αten-year␈αsummary␈αof␈αA.I.␈αLab.␈αresearch␈αwith␈αabsracts␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α∞all␈α
reports␈α
is␈α
available␈α
[8],␈α
as␈α
well␈α
as␈α
a␈α
summary␈α
of␈α
recent␈α
work␈α
[9].␈α
We␈α
also␈α
have␈α
some␈α
16mm␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfilms␈α
for␈α
loan␈α
[10].␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ∧4␈↓αStanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α
Stanford␈αArtificial␈αIntelligence␈αLaboratory␈αwas␈αstarted␈αin␈α1963␈αand␈αmoved␈αto␈αits␈αpresent␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hlocation␈α⊂at␈α⊂1600␈α⊂Arastradero␈α⊂Road,␈α⊂Palo␈α⊂Alto␈α⊂in␈α⊂1966.␈α⊂Since␈α⊂the␈α∂beginning,␈α∂our␈α∂work␈α∂has␈α∂been␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmostly␈α∞supported␈α∞by␈α∞the␈α∞Advanced␈α∞Research␈α∞Projects␈α∞Agency␈α∞of␈α∞the␈α∞Defense␈α∞Department,␈α∞but␈α∞we␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhave␈αalso␈αbeen␈αsupported␈αby␈αthe␈αNational␈αScience␈αFoundation,␈αthe␈αNational␈αAeronautics␈αand␈αSpace␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HAdministration,␈α
the␈α
National␈α
Institute␈α
of␈α
Mental␈α
Health,␈α
and␈α
private␈α
foundations.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Our␈α↔research␈α↔goals␈α↔include␈α↔all␈α↔areas␈α↔of␈α↔artificial␈α↔intelligence,␈α↔mathematical␈α↔theory␈α↔of␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputation␈α∩(the␈α∩problem␈α⊃of␈α⊃specifying␈α⊃properties␈α⊃of␈α⊃computer␈α⊃programs␈α⊃and␈α⊃proving␈α⊃that␈α⊃the␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hprograms␈α⊂meet␈α⊂their␈α⊂specifications),␈α⊂studies␈α⊂in␈α∂natural␈α∂language,␈α∂and␈α∂studies␈α∂in␈α∂time-sharing␈α∂and␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hother␈αaspects␈αof␈αcomputer␈αsystems.␈αHowever,␈αthe␈αmain␈αwork␈αof␈αthe␈αlaboratory␈αsince␈αits␈αinception␈αhas␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hincluded␈α
the␈α
following:␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_1.␈α
␈↓↓Computer␈α
vision.␈↓␈α
Images␈α
are␈α
obtained␈α
from␈α
a␈α
television␈α
camera␈α
and␈α
are␈α
processed␈α
to␈α
describe␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈αscene␈αin␈αways␈αappropriate␈αto␈αthe␈αpurpose␈αof␈αthe␈αprogram.␈αThese␈αpurposes␈αinclude␈αmanipulation,␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdriving␈α
a␈α
vehicle,␈α
and␈α
simply␈α
checking␈α
our␈α
understanding␈α
of␈α
perceptual␈α
mechanisms.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_2.␈α⊂␈↓↓Manipulation.␈↓␈α⊂Programs␈α∂have␈α∂been␈α∂and␈α∂are␈α∂being␈α∂developed␈α∂to␈α∂assemble␈α∂objects␈α∂out␈α∂of␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hparts.␈α
A␈α
recent␈α
program␈α
assembles␈α
the␈α
water␈α
pump␈α
from␈α
a␈α
Model␈α
T␈α
Ford.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_3.␈α
␈↓↓Driving␈α
a␈α
vehicle.␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_4.␈α∃␈↓↓Theorem␈α∃proving.␈↓␈α∃Programs␈α∃using␈α∃J.␈α∃Alan␈α∃Robinson's␈α∃resolution␈α∃method␈α∃of␈α∃proving␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Htheorems␈α⊂in␈α⊂first␈α⊂order␈α⊂logic␈α⊂are␈α⊂used␈α⊂to␈α⊂prove␈α⊂theorems␈α⊂in␈α∂mathematics,␈α∂to␈α∂prove␈α∂properties␈α∂of␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputer␈α
programs,␈α
and␈α
to␈α
generate␈α
computer␈α
programs␈α
having␈α
prescribed␈α
properties.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_5.␈α∀␈↓↓Mathematical␈α∀theory␈α∀of␈α∪computation.␈↓␈α∪Methods␈α∪for␈α∪proving␈α∪properties␈α∪of␈α∪programs␈α∪are␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdeveloped.␈α∞Programs␈α∞for␈α∞checking␈α∞proofs␈α∞in␈α∞first␈α∞order␈α∞logic␈α∞and␈α∞in␈α∞a␈α
special␈α
logic␈α
of␈α
computable␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfunctions␈α
have␈α
been␈α
developed.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_6.␈α
␈↓↓Automatic␈α
programming.␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_7.␈α␈↓↓Game␈αplaying.␈↓␈αSome␈αwork␈αin␈αcheckers,␈αchess␈αand␈αgo␈α
has␈α
been␈α
done,␈α
but␈α
we␈α
are␈α
not␈α
active␈α
in␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthis␈α
field␈α
at␈α
present.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_8.␈α
␈↓↓Speech␈α
recognition,␈↓␈α
also␈α
inactive␈α
currently.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_9.␈α
␈↓↓Natural␈α
language␈α
understanding.␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_10.␈α␈↓↓Computer␈αgraphics.␈↓␈αPrograms␈αhave␈αbeen␈αwritten␈αto␈αallow␈αa␈αcomputer␈αdesigner␈αto␈αput␈αlogic␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdiagrams␈α⊂in␈α⊂the␈α⊂computer␈α⊂and␈α⊂diagrams␈α⊂for␈α∂printed␈α∂circuit␈α∂boards.␈α∂An␈α∂integrated␈α∂system␈α∂checks␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hconsistency␈αof␈αthe␈αvarious␈αdiagrams,␈αpermits␈αchanges␈αto␈αbe␈αmade␈αeasily,␈αand␈αproduces␈αoutput␈αfor␈α
the␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hautomatic␈α
manufacture␈α
of␈α
printed␈α
circuit␈α
boards␈α
and␈α
for␈α
automatic␈α
wire␈α
wrapping␈α
machines.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_A␈αseparate␈αproject␈αallows␈αthe␈αdesign␈αof␈αthree␈αdimensional␈αobjects␈αand␈αtheir␈αdisplay␈αin␈αvarious␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hviews,␈α
and␈α
the␈α
simulation␈α
of␈α
their␈α
motion␈α
and␈α
operation␈α
of␈α
joints.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_11.␈α
␈↓↓Time-sharing␈α
systems.␈↓␈αThere␈αis␈αalso␈αdevelopment␈αof␈αtime-sharing␈αtechniques␈αespecially␈αfor␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdisplay␈α
oriented␈α
systems.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ¬R␈↓αComputer Facilities␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈αcomputer␈α
facilities␈α
of␈α
the␈α
laboratory␈α
comprise␈α
PDP-10␈α
and␈α
PDP-6␈α
processors,␈α
256K␈α
words␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α∂core,␈α∂a␈α∂swapping␈α∂disk,␈α∂an␈α∞IBM␈α∞3330␈α∞for␈α∞file␈α∞storage,␈α∞a␈α∞six␈α∞terminal␈α∞vector␈α∞type␈α∞keyboard␈α∞and␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdisplay␈α
system␈α
and␈α
a␈α60␈αterminal␈αraster␈αtype␈αdisplay␈αsystem,␈αA-D␈αand␈αD-A␈αconverters,␈αa␈αconnection␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hto␈αthe␈αARPA␈αnetwork,␈αand␈αa␈αfew␈αexternal␈αteletype␈α
speed␈α
lines.␈α
There␈α
is␈α
also␈α
a␈α
PDP-11/45␈α
system␈α
for␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcontrolling␈α
real-time␈α
devices,␈αwith␈α200k␈αwords␈αof␈αMOS␈αand␈αcore␈αmemory␈αand␈αan␈αSPS-41␈αprocessor.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HConnected␈α
to␈α
the␈α
system␈α
are␈α
television␈α
cameras,␈α
mechanical␈α
arms,␈α
and␈α
a␈α
computer␈α
controllable␈α
cart␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwith␈α
a␈α
TV␈α
camera.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ε3␈↓αStaff␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α∀personnel␈α∀of␈α∀the␈α∀laboratory␈α∀include␈α∀faculty␈α∀and␈α∪students␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪Computer␈α∪Science␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HDepartment␈α∞and␈α∞a␈α∞few␈α∞other␈α∞departments␈α∞at␈α∞Stanford␈α∞University,␈α∞the␈α
professional␈α
staff,␈α
and␈α
some␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hresearch␈αassociates.␈αPotential␈αgraduate␈αstudents␈αwishing␈αto␈αspecialize␈αin␈αartificial␈αintelligence␈αand␈αdo␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hresearch␈αin␈αthe␈αlaboratory␈αshould␈αusually␈αapply␈αfor␈αadmission␈αto␈αthe␈αComputer␈αScience␈αDepartment␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hat␈α
Stanford␈α
University.␈α
Potential␈α
research␈α
associates␈α
should␈α
apply␈α
directly␈α
to␈α
the␈α
laboratory.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ε∞␈↓αReferences␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[1]  Turing, A. M. ␈↓αComputing Machinery and Intelligence␈↓, ␈↓↓Mind,␈↓ 1950. Reprinted in J. R.␈↓ ↓H
     Newman (ed.), ␈↓↓The World of Mathematics,␈↓ Vol. 4, p. 2099, Simon & Shuster, New York, 1956.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[2]  ␈↓↓Advanced Papers of the Third International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence␈↓,␈↓ ↓H
     August 1973.  Available from Dr. Donald Walker, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park,␈↓ ↓H
     Calif.; price: $15.00.  ␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[3]  Newell, Allen and Simon, Herbert A., ␈↓↓Human Problem Solving␈↓, Prentice-Hall, Englewood␈↓ ↓H
     Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[4]  Nilsson, Nils, ␈↓↓Problem Solving Methods in Artificial Intelligence␈↓, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1971.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[5]  Nilsson, Nils, ␈↓αArtificial Intelligence␈↓, in ␈↓↓Proc. IFIP Congress 1974␈↓, Stockholm, Sweden,␈↓ ↓H
     1974.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[6]  Slagle, James R., ␈↓↓Artificial Intelligence:  The Heuristic-Programming Approach␈↓,␈↓ ↓H
     McGraw-Hill, 1971.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[7]  To obtain abstracts of recent Computer Science Reports, including A. I. Memos, write to:␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_␈↓↓Documentation Services␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Computer Science Department␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Stanford University␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Stanford, California 94305␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[8]  Earnest, Lester (ed.), ␈↓αThe First Ten Years of Artificial Intelligence Research at Stanford␈↓,␈↓ ↓H
     Stanford A.I. Lab. Memo AIM-228, July 1973.  Available in microfiche only from␈↓ ↓H
     ␈↓↓Documentation Services␈↓ (address in letterhead), or in hard copy or microfiche as accession␈↓ ↓H
     No. ADA776233/9WC from:␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_␈↓↓National Technical Information Service␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_5285 Port Royal Road␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Springfield, Virginia 22161␈↓␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[9]  Earnest, Lester, (ed.), ␈↓αRecent Research in Artificial Intelligence, Heuristic Programming,␈↓ ↓H
     and Network Protocols␈↓, Stanford A. I. Lab Memo AIM-252, July 1974. Available in␈↓ ↓H
     microfiche from A.I. Lab. (address in letterhead) or in hard copy or microfiche␈↓ ↓H
     from N.T.I.S. (address just above) as accession No. ADA002246.␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
[10] To request a list of films on A. I. Lab. research, write to ␈↓↓Documentation Services␈↓␈↓ ↓H
     (address in letterhead).␈↓ ↓H